{"id":856,"date":"2021-01-25T00:52:44","date_gmt":"2021-01-25T00:52:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.publishdot.com\/anatomyphysiology\/chapter\/13-9-the-peripheral-nervous-system\/"},"modified":"2021-12-07T09:51:14","modified_gmt":"2021-12-07T09:51:14","slug":"13-9-the-peripheral-nervous-system","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.publishdot.com\/anatomyphysiology\/chapter\/13-9-the-peripheral-nervous-system\/","title":{"raw":"13.9 The Peripheral Nervous System","rendered":"13.9 The Peripheral Nervous System"},"content":{"raw":"
\n

Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n

\n\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\n
    \n \t
  • Describe the structures found in the PNS<\/li>\n \t
  • Distinguish between somatic and autonomic structures, including the special peripheral structures of the enteric nervous system<\/li>\n \t
  • Name the twelve cranial nerves and explain the functions associated with each<\/li>\n \t
  • Describe the sensory and motor components of spinal nerves and the plexuses that they pass through<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\nThe PNS is not as contained as the CNS because it is defined as everything that is not the CNS. Some peripheral structures are incorporated into the other organs of the body. In describing the anatomy of the PNS, it is necessary to describe the common structures, the nerves and the ganglia, as they are found in various parts of the body. Many of the neural structures that are incorporated into other organs are features of the digestive system; these structures are known as the enteric nervous system<\/strong> and are a special subset of the PNS.\n

    Ganglia<\/h2>\nA ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the periphery. Ganglia can be categorised, for the most part, as either sensory ganglia or autonomic ganglia, referring to their primary functions. The most common type of sensory ganglion is a dorsal (posterior) root ganglion<\/strong>. These ganglia are the cell bodies of neurons with axons that are sensory endings in the periphery, such as in the skin, and that extend into the CNS through the dorsal nerve root. The ganglion is an enlargement of the nerve root. Under microscopic inspection, it can be seen to include the cell bodies of the neurons, as well as bundles of fibres that are the posterior nerve root (Figure 13.9.1). The cells of the dorsal root ganglion are unipolar cells, classifying them by shape. Also, the small round nuclei of satellite cells can be seen surrounding\u2014as if they were orbiting\u2014the neuron cell bodies.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_855\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"624\"]\"Dorsal Figure 13.9.1. Dorsal root ganglion. T<\/strong>he cell bodies of sensory neurons, which are unipolar neurons by shape, are seen in this photomicrograph. Also, the fibrous region is composed of the axons of these neurons that are passing through the ganglion to be part of the dorsal nerve root (tissue source: canine). LM \u00d7 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School \u00a9 2012).[\/caption]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_855\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"624\"]\"Spinal Figure 13.9.2. Spinal cord and root ganglion.<\/strong> The slide includes both a cross-section of the lumbar spinal cord and a section of the dorsal root ganglion (see also Figure 13.9.1) (tissue source: canine). LM \u00d7 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School \u00a9 2012).[\/caption]\n\nAnother type of sensory ganglion is a cranial nerve<\/strong> ganglion<\/strong>. This is analogous to the dorsal root ganglion, except that it is associated with a cranial nerve instead of a spinal nerve<\/strong>. The roots of cranial nerves are within the cranium, whereas the ganglia are outside the skull, for example, the trigeminal ganglion<\/strong> is superficial to the temporal bone whereas its associated nerve is attached to the mid-pons region of the brain stem. The neurons of cranial nerve ganglia are also unipolar in shape with associated satellite cells.\n\nThe other major category of ganglia are those of the autonomic nervous system, which is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic chain ganglia<\/strong> constitute a row of ganglia along the vertebral column that receive central input from the lateral horn of the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord. Superior to the chain ganglia are three paravertebral ganglia<\/strong> in the cervical region. Three other autonomic ganglia that are related to the sympathetic chain are the prevertebral ganglia, which are located outside of the chain but have similar functions. They are referred to as prevertebral because they are anterior to the vertebral column. The neurons of these autonomic ganglia are multipolar in shape, with dendrites radiating out around the cell body where synapses from the spinal cord neurons are made. The neurons of the chain, paravertebral, and prevertebral ganglia then project to organs in the head and neck, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities to regulate the sympathetic aspect of homeostatic mechanisms.\n\nAnother group of autonomic ganglia are the terminal ganglia that receive input from cranial nerves or sacral spinal nerves and are responsible for regulating the parasympathetic aspect of homeostatic mechanisms. These two sets of ganglia, sympathetic and parasympathetic, often project to the same organs\u2014one input from the chain ganglia and one input from a terminal ganglion<\/strong>\u2014to regulate the overall function of an organ. The heart, for example, receives two inputs such as these; one increases heart rate, and the other decreases it. The terminal ganglia that receive input from cranial nerves are found in the head and neck, as well as the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities, whereas the terminal ganglia that receive sacral input are in the lower abdominal and pelvic cavities.\n\nTerminal ganglia below the head and neck are often incorporated into the wall of the target organ as a plexus<\/strong>. A plexus, in a general sense, is a network of fibres or vessels. This can apply to nervous tissue (as in this instance) or structures containing blood vessels (such as a choroid plexus), for example, the enteric plexus<\/strong> is the extensive network of axons and neurons in the wall of the small and large intestines. The enteric plexus is actually part of the enteric nervous system, along with the gastric plexuses<\/strong> and the oesophageal plexus<\/strong>. Though the enteric nervous system receives input originating from central neurons of the autonomic nervous system, it does not require CNS input to function. In fact, it operates independently to regulate the digestive system.\n

    Nerves<\/h2>\nBundles of axons in the PNS are referred to as nerves. These structures in the periphery are different than the central counterpart, called a tract. Nerves are composed of more than just nervous tissue. They have connective tissues invested in their structure, as well as blood vessels supplying the tissues with nourishment. The outer surface of a nerve is a surrounding layer of fibrous connective tissue called the epineurium<\/strong>. Within the nerve, axons are further bundled into fascicles<\/strong>, which are each surrounded by their own layer of fibrous connective tissue called perineurium<\/strong>. Finally, individual axons are surrounded by loose connective tissue called the endoneurium<\/strong> (Figure 13.9.3). These three layers are similar to the connective tissue sheaths for muscles. Nerves are associated with the region of the CNS to which they are connected, either as cranial nerves connected to the brain or spinal nerves connected to the spinal cord.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_855\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"624\"]\"Diagram Figure 13.9.3. Nerve structure.<\/strong> The structure of a nerve is organised by the layers of connective tissue on the outside, around each fascicle, and surrounding the individual nerve fibres (tissue source: simian). LM \u00d7 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School \u00a9 2012).[\/caption]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_855\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"624\"]\"Close-up Figure 13.9.4. Close-up of nerve trunk.<\/strong> Zoom in on this slide of a nerve trunk to examine the endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium in greater detail (tissue source: simian). LM \u00d7 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School \u00a9 2012).[\/caption]\n

    Cranial Nerves<\/h2>\nThe nerves attached to the brain are the cranial nerves, which are primarily responsible for the sensory and motor functions of the head and neck (one of these nerves targets organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities as part of the parasympathetic nervous system). There are twelve cranial nerves, which are designated CNI through CNXII for \u201cCranial Nerve,\u201d using Roman numerals for 1 through 12. They can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or a combination of both, meaning that the axons in these nerves originate out of sensory ganglia external to the cranium or motor nuclei within the brain stem. Sensory axons enter the brain to synapse in a nucleus. Motor axons connect to skeletal muscles of the head or neck. Three of the nerves are solely composed of sensory fibres; five are strictly motor; and the remaining four are mixed nerves.\n\nLearning the cranial nerves is a tradition in anatomy courses, and students have always used mnemonic devices to remember the nerve names. A traditional mnemonic is the rhyming couplet, \u201cOn Old Olympus\u2019 Towering Tops\/A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops,\u201d in which the initial letter of each word corresponds to the initial letter in the name of each nerve. The names of the nerves have changed over the years to reflect current usage and more accurate naming. An exercise to help learn this sort of information is to generate a mnemonic using words that have personal significance. The names of the cranial nerves are listed in Table 13.9.1 along with a brief description of their function, their source (sensory ganglion or motor nucleus), and their target (sensory nucleus or skeletal muscle). They are listed here with a brief explanation of each nerve (Figure 13.9.5).\n\nThe olfactory nerve<\/strong> and optic nerve<\/strong> are responsible for the sense of smell and vision, respectively. The oculomotor nerve<\/strong> is responsible for eye movements by controlling four of the extraocular muscles<\/strong>. It is also responsible for lifting the upper eyelid when the eyes point up, and for pupillary constriction. The trochlear nerve<\/strong> and the abducens nerve<\/strong> are both responsible for eye movement but do so by controlling different extraocular muscles. The trigeminal nerve<\/strong> is responsible for cutaneous sensations of the face and controlling the muscles of mastication. The facial nerve<\/strong> is responsible for the muscles involved in facial expressions, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva. The vestibulocochlear nerve<\/strong> is responsible for the senses of hearing and balance. The glossopharyngeal nerve<\/strong> is responsible for controlling muscles in the oral cavity and upper throat, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva. The vagus nerve<\/strong> is responsible for contributing to homeostatic control of the organs of the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities. The spinal accessory nerve<\/strong> is responsible for controlling the muscles of the neck, along with cervical spinal nerves. The hypoglossal nerve<\/strong> is responsible for controlling the muscles of the lower throat and tongue.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_855\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"624\"]\"Diagram Figure 13.9.5. The cranial nerves.<\/strong> The anatomical arrangement of the roots of the cranial nerves observed from an inferior view of the brain.[\/caption]\n\nThree of the cranial nerves also contain autonomic fibres, and a fourth is purely a component of the autonomic system. The oculomotor, facial, and glossopharyngeal nerves contain fibres that contact autonomic ganglia. The oculomotor fibres initiate pupillary constriction, whereas the facial and glossopharyngeal fibres both initiate salivation. The vagus nerve primarily targets autonomic ganglia in the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities.\n\nAnother important aspect of the cranial nerves that lends itself to a mnemonic is the functional role each nerve plays. The nerves fall into one of three basic groups. They are sensory, motor, or both (see Table 13.9.1). The sentence, \u201cSome Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Brains Beauty Matter More,\u201d corresponds to the basic function of each nerve. The first, second, and eighth nerves are purely sensory: the olfactory (CNI), optic (CNII), and vestibulocochlear (CNVIII) nerves. The three eye-movement nerves are all motor: the oculomotor (CNIII), trochlear (CNIV), and abducens (CNVI). The spinal accessory (CNXI) and hypoglossal (CNXII) nerves are also strictly motor. The remainder of the nerves contain both sensory and motor fibres. They are the trigeminal (CNV), facial (CNVII), glossopharyngeal (CNIX), and vagus (CNX) nerves. The nerves that convey both are often related to each other. The trigeminal and facial nerves both concern the face; one concerns the sensations and the other concerns the muscle movements. The facial and glossopharyngeal nerves are both responsible for conveying gustatory, or taste, sensations as well as controlling salivary glands. The vagus nerve is involved in visceral responses to taste, namely the gag reflex. This is not an exhaustive list of what these combination nerves do, but there is a thread of relation between them.\n\nTable 13.9.1.<\/strong> Cranial nerves\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Mnemonic<\/strong><\/td>\n#<\/strong><\/td>\nName<\/strong><\/td>\nFunction<\/strong>\n\n(S\/M\/B)<\/strong><\/td>\nCentral connection<\/strong>\n\n(nuclei)<\/strong><\/td>\nPeripheral connection<\/strong>\n\n(ganglion or muscle)<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    On<\/td>\nI<\/td>\nOlfactory<\/td>\nSmell (S)<\/td>\nOlfactory bulb<\/td>\nOlfactory epithelium<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Old<\/td>\nII<\/td>\nOptic<\/td>\nVision (S)<\/td>\nHypothalamus\/\n\nThalamus\/\n\nmidbrain<\/td>\nRetina\n\n(retinal ganglion cells)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Olympus*<\/td>\nIII<\/td>\nOculomotor<\/td>\nEye movements (M)<\/td>\nOculomotor nucleus<\/td>\nExtraocular muscles\n\n(other 4), levator palpebrae, superioris, ciliary ganglion\n\n(autonomic)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Towering<\/td>\nIV<\/td>\nTrochlear<\/td>\nEye movements (M)<\/td>\nTrochlear nucleus<\/td>\nSuperior oblique muscle<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Tops<\/td>\nV<\/td>\nTrigeminal<\/td>\nSensory\/motor - face (B)<\/td>\nTrigeminal nuceli in the midbrain, pons, and medulla<\/td>\nTrigeminal<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    A<\/td>\nVI<\/td>\nAbducens<\/td>\nEye movement (M)<\/td>\nAbducens nucleus<\/td>\nLateral rectus muscle<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Finn<\/td>\nVII<\/td>\nFacial<\/td>\nMotor \u2013 face, taste (B)<\/td>\nFacial nucleus, solitary nucleus, superior salivatory nucleus<\/td>\nFacial muscles, Geniculate ganglion, Pterygopalatine ganglion\n\n(autonomic)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    And<\/td>\nVIIi<\/td>\nAuditory\n\n(Vestibulocochlear)<\/td>\nHearing\/balance (S)<\/td>\nCochlear nucleus, Vestibular nucleus\/cerebellum<\/td>\nSiral ganglion (hearing), Vestibular ganglion (balance)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    German<\/td>\nIX<\/td>\nGlossopharyngeal<\/td>\nMotor \u2013 throat taste (B)<\/td>\nSolitary nucleus, inferior salivatory nucleus, nucleus ambiguus<\/td>\nPharyngeal muscles, Geniculate ganglion, Otic ganglion\n\n(autonomic)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Viewed<\/td>\nX<\/td>\nVagus<\/td>\nMotor\/sensory - viscera\n\n(autonomic) (B)<\/td>\nMedulla<\/td>\nTerminal ganglia serving thoracic and upper abdominal organs (heart and small intestine)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Some<\/td>\nXI<\/td>\nSpinal accessory<\/td>\nMotor \u2013 head and neck (M)<\/td>\nSpinal accessory nucleus<\/td>\nNeck muscles<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Hops<\/td>\nXII<\/td>\nHypoglossal<\/td>\nMotor \u2013 lower throat (M)<\/td>\nHypoglossal nucleus<\/td>\nMuscles of the larynx and lower pharynx<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    Spinal Nerves<\/h2>\nThe nerves connected to the spinal cord are the spinal nerves. The arrangement of these nerves is much more regular than that of the cranial nerves. All of the spinal nerves are combined sensory and motor axons that separate into two nerve roots. The sensory axons enter the spinal cord as the dorsal nerve root. The motor fibres, both somatic and autonomic, emerge as the ventral nerve root. The dorsal root ganglion for each nerve is an enlargement of the spinal nerve.\n\nThere are 31 spinal nerves, named for the level of the spinal cord at which each one emerges. There are eight pairs of cervical nerves designated C1 to C8, twelve thoracic nerves designated T1 to T12, five pairs of lumbar nerves designated L1 to L5, five pairs of sacral nerves designated S1 to S5, and one pair of coccygeal nerves. The nerves are numbered from the superior to inferior positions, and each emerges from the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramen at its level. The first nerve, C1, emerges between the first cervical vertebra and the occipital bone. The second nerve, C2, emerges between the first and second cervical vertebrae. The same occurs for C3 to C7, but C8 emerges between the seventh cervical vertebra and the first thoracic vertebra. For the thoracic and lumbar nerves, each one emerges between the vertebra that has the same designation and the next vertebra in the column. The sacral nerves emerge from the sacral foramina along the length of that unique vertebra.\n\nSpinal nerves extend outward from the vertebral column to enervate the periphery. The nerves in the periphery are not straight continuations of the spinal nerves, but the reorganisation of the axons in those nerves to follow different courses. Axons from different spinal nerves will come together into a systemic nerve<\/strong>. This occurs at four places along the length of the vertebral column, each identified as a nerve plexus<\/strong>, whereas the other spinal nerves directly correspond to nerves at their respective levels. In this instance, the word plexus is used to describe networks of nerve fibres with no associated cell bodies.\n\nOf the four nerve plexuses, two are found at the cervical level, one at the lumbar level, and one at the sacral level (Figure 13.9.6). The cervical plexus<\/strong> is composed of axons from spinal nerves C1 through C5 and branches into nerves in the posterior neck and head, as well as the phrenic nerve<\/strong>, which connects to the diaphragm at the base of the thoracic cavity. The other plexus from the cervical level is the brachial plexus<\/strong>. Spinal nerves C4 through T1 reorganise through this plexus to give rise to the nerves of the arms, as the name brachial suggests. A large nerve from this plexus is the radial nerve<\/strong> from which the axillary nerve<\/strong> branches to go to the armpit region. The radial nerve continues through the arm and is paralleled by the ulnar nerve<\/strong> and the median nerve<\/strong>. The lumbar plexus<\/strong> arises from all the lumbar spinal nerves and gives rise to nerves enervating the pelvic region and the anterior leg. The femoral nerve<\/strong> is one of the major nerves from this plexus, which gives rise to the saphenous nerve<\/strong> as a branch that extends through the anterior lower leg. The sacral plexus<\/strong> comes from the lower lumbar nerves L4 and L5 and the sacral nerves S1 to S4. The most significant systemic nerve to come from this plexus is the sciatic nerve, which is a combination of the tibial nerve<\/strong> and the fibular nerve<\/strong>. The sciatic nerve<\/strong> extends across the hip joint and is most associated with the condition sciatica<\/strong>, which is the result of compression or irritation of the nerve or any of the spinal nerves giving rise to it.\n\nThese plexuses are described as arising from spinal nerves and giving rise to certain systemic nerves, but they contain fibres that serve sensory functions or fibres that serve motor functions. This means that some fibres extend from cutaneous or other peripheral sensory surfaces and send action potentials into the CNS. Those are axons of sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia that enter the spinal cord through the dorsal nerve root. Other fibres are the axons of motor neurons of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, which emerge in the ventral nerve root and send action potentials to cause skeletal muscles to contract in their target regions. The radial nerve, for example, contains fibres of cutaneous sensation in the arm, as well as motor fibres that move muscles in the arm.\n\nSpinal nerves of the thoracic region, T2 through T11, are not part of the plexuses but emerge and give rise to the intercostal nerves<\/strong> found between the ribs, which articulate with the vertebrae surrounding the spinal nerve.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_855\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"575\"]\"Nerve Figure 13.9.6. Nerve plexuses of the body.<\/strong> There are four main nerve plexuses in the human body. The cervical plexus supplies nerves to the posterior head and neck, as well as to the diaphragm. The brachial plexus supplies nerves to the arm. The lumbar plexus supplies nerves to the anterior leg. The sacral plexus supplies nerves to the posterior leg.[\/caption]\n

    Ageing and the Nervous System<\/h2>\nAnosmia is the loss of the sense of smell. It is often the result of the olfactory nerve being severed, usually because of blunt force trauma to the head. The sensory neurons of the olfactory epithelium have a limited lifespan of approximately one to four months, and new ones are made on a regular basis. The new neurons extend their axons into the CNS by growing along the existing fibres of the olfactory nerve. The ability of these neurons to be replaced is lost with age. Age-related anosmia is not the result of impact trauma to the head, but rather a slow loss of the sensory neurons with no new neurons born to replace them.\n\nSmell is an important sense, especially for the enjoyment of food. There are only five tastes sensed by the tongue, and two of them are generally thought of as unpleasant tastes (sour and bitter). The rich sensory experience of food is the result of odour molecules associated with the food, both as food is moved into the mouth, and therefore passes under the nose, and when it is chewed and molecules are released to move up the pharynx into the posterior nasal cavity. Anosmia results in a loss of the enjoyment of food.\n\nAs the replacement of olfactory neurons declines with age, anosmia can set in. Without the sense of smell, many sufferers complain of food tasting bland. Often, the only way to enjoy food is to add seasoning that can be sensed on the tongue, which usually means adding table salt. The problem with this solution, however, is that this increases sodium intake, which can lead to cardiovascular problems through water retention and the associated increase in blood pressure.\n
    \n

    Section Review<\/strong><\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n

    \n\nThe PNS is composed of the groups of neurons (ganglia) and bundles of axons (nerves) that are outside of the brain and spinal cord. Ganglia are of two types, sensory or autonomic. Sensory ganglia contain unipolar sensory neurons and are found on the dorsal root of all spinal nerves as well as associated with many of the cranial nerves. Autonomic ganglia are in the sympathetic chain, the associated paravertebral or prevertebral ganglia, or in terminal ganglia near or within the organs controlled by the autonomic nervous system.\n\nNerves are classified as cranial nerves or spinal nerves on the basis of their connection to the brain or spinal cord, respectively. The twelve cranial nerves can be strictly sensory in function, strictly motor in function, or a combination of the two functions. Sensory fibres are axons of sensory ganglia that carry sensory information into the brain and target sensory nuclei. Motor fibres are axons of motor neurons in motor nuclei of the brain stem and target skeletal muscles of the head and neck. Spinal nerves are all mixed nerves with both sensory and motor fibres. Spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord and reorganise through plexuses, which then give rise to systemic nerves. Thoracic spinal nerves are not part of any plexus but give rise to the intercostal nerves directly.\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
    \n

    Review Questions<\/strong><\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n

    \n\n[h5p id=\"446\"]\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
    \n

    Critical Thinking Questions<\/strong><\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n

    \n\n[h5p id=\"447\"]\n\n[h5p id=\"448\"]\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\nClick the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.\n\n[h5p id=\"449\"]","rendered":"
    \n
    \n

    Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n

    \n

    By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n

      \n
    • Describe the structures found in the PNS<\/li>\n
    • Distinguish between somatic and autonomic structures, including the special peripheral structures of the enteric nervous system<\/li>\n
    • Name the twelve cranial nerves and explain the functions associated with each<\/li>\n
    • Describe the sensory and motor components of spinal nerves and the plexuses that they pass through<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

      The PNS is not as contained as the CNS because it is defined as everything that is not the CNS. Some peripheral structures are incorporated into the other organs of the body. In describing the anatomy of the PNS, it is necessary to describe the common structures, the nerves and the ganglia, as they are found in various parts of the body. Many of the neural structures that are incorporated into other organs are features of the digestive system; these structures are known as the enteric nervous system<\/strong> and are a special subset of the PNS.<\/p>\n

      Ganglia<\/h2>\n

      A ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the periphery. Ganglia can be categorised, for the most part, as either sensory ganglia or autonomic ganglia, referring to their primary functions. The most common type of sensory ganglion is a dorsal (posterior) root ganglion<\/strong>. These ganglia are the cell bodies of neurons with axons that are sensory endings in the periphery, such as in the skin, and that extend into the CNS through the dorsal nerve root. The ganglion is an enlargement of the nerve root. Under microscopic inspection, it can be seen to include the cell bodies of the neurons, as well as bundles of fibres that are the posterior nerve root (Figure 13.9.1). The cells of the dorsal root ganglion are unipolar cells, classifying them by shape. Also, the small round nuclei of satellite cells can be seen surrounding\u2014as if they were orbiting\u2014the neuron cell bodies.<\/p>\n

      \"Dorsal
      Figure 13.9.1. Dorsal root ganglion. T<\/strong>he cell bodies of sensory neurons, which are unipolar neurons by shape, are seen in this photomicrograph. Also, the fibrous region is composed of the axons of these neurons that are passing through the ganglion to be part of the dorsal nerve root (tissue source: canine). LM \u00d7 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School \u00a9 2012).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
      \"Spinal
      Figure 13.9.2. Spinal cord and root ganglion.<\/strong> The slide includes both a cross-section of the lumbar spinal cord and a section of the dorsal root ganglion (see also Figure 13.9.1) (tissue source: canine). LM \u00d7 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School \u00a9 2012).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

      Another type of sensory ganglion is a cranial nerve<\/strong> ganglion<\/strong>. This is analogous to the dorsal root ganglion, except that it is associated with a cranial nerve instead of a spinal nerve<\/strong>. The roots of cranial nerves are within the cranium, whereas the ganglia are outside the skull, for example, the trigeminal ganglion<\/strong> is superficial to the temporal bone whereas its associated nerve is attached to the mid-pons region of the brain stem. The neurons of cranial nerve ganglia are also unipolar in shape with associated satellite cells.<\/p>\n

      The other major category of ganglia are those of the autonomic nervous system, which is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic chain ganglia<\/strong> constitute a row of ganglia along the vertebral column that receive central input from the lateral horn of the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord. Superior to the chain ganglia are three paravertebral ganglia<\/strong> in the cervical region. Three other autonomic ganglia that are related to the sympathetic chain are the prevertebral ganglia, which are located outside of the chain but have similar functions. They are referred to as prevertebral because they are anterior to the vertebral column. The neurons of these autonomic ganglia are multipolar in shape, with dendrites radiating out around the cell body where synapses from the spinal cord neurons are made. The neurons of the chain, paravertebral, and prevertebral ganglia then project to organs in the head and neck, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities to regulate the sympathetic aspect of homeostatic mechanisms.<\/p>\n

      Another group of autonomic ganglia are the terminal ganglia that receive input from cranial nerves or sacral spinal nerves and are responsible for regulating the parasympathetic aspect of homeostatic mechanisms. These two sets of ganglia, sympathetic and parasympathetic, often project to the same organs\u2014one input from the chain ganglia and one input from a terminal ganglion<\/strong>\u2014to regulate the overall function of an organ. The heart, for example, receives two inputs such as these; one increases heart rate, and the other decreases it. The terminal ganglia that receive input from cranial nerves are found in the head and neck, as well as the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities, whereas the terminal ganglia that receive sacral input are in the lower abdominal and pelvic cavities.<\/p>\n

      Terminal ganglia below the head and neck are often incorporated into the wall of the target organ as a plexus<\/strong>. A plexus, in a general sense, is a network of fibres or vessels. This can apply to nervous tissue (as in this instance) or structures containing blood vessels (such as a choroid plexus), for example, the enteric plexus<\/strong> is the extensive network of axons and neurons in the wall of the small and large intestines. The enteric plexus is actually part of the enteric nervous system, along with the gastric plexuses<\/strong> and the oesophageal plexus<\/strong>. Though the enteric nervous system receives input originating from central neurons of the autonomic nervous system, it does not require CNS input to function. In fact, it operates independently to regulate the digestive system.<\/p>\n

      Nerves<\/h2>\n

      Bundles of axons in the PNS are referred to as nerves. These structures in the periphery are different than the central counterpart, called a tract. Nerves are composed of more than just nervous tissue. They have connective tissues invested in their structure, as well as blood vessels supplying the tissues with nourishment. The outer surface of a nerve is a surrounding layer of fibrous connective tissue called the epineurium<\/strong>. Within the nerve, axons are further bundled into fascicles<\/strong>, which are each surrounded by their own layer of fibrous connective tissue called perineurium<\/strong>. Finally, individual axons are surrounded by loose connective tissue called the endoneurium<\/strong> (Figure 13.9.3). These three layers are similar to the connective tissue sheaths for muscles. Nerves are associated with the region of the CNS to which they are connected, either as cranial nerves connected to the brain or spinal nerves connected to the spinal cord.<\/p>\n

      \"Diagram
      Figure 13.9.3. Nerve structure.<\/strong> The structure of a nerve is organised by the layers of connective tissue on the outside, around each fascicle, and surrounding the individual nerve fibres (tissue source: simian). LM \u00d7 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School \u00a9 2012).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
      \"Close-up
      Figure 13.9.4. Close-up of nerve trunk.<\/strong> Zoom in on this slide of a nerve trunk to examine the endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium in greater detail (tissue source: simian). LM \u00d7 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School \u00a9 2012).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

      Cranial Nerves<\/h2>\n

      The nerves attached to the brain are the cranial nerves, which are primarily responsible for the sensory and motor functions of the head and neck (one of these nerves targets organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities as part of the parasympathetic nervous system). There are twelve cranial nerves, which are designated CNI through CNXII for \u201cCranial Nerve,\u201d using Roman numerals for 1 through 12. They can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or a combination of both, meaning that the axons in these nerves originate out of sensory ganglia external to the cranium or motor nuclei within the brain stem. Sensory axons enter the brain to synapse in a nucleus. Motor axons connect to skeletal muscles of the head or neck. Three of the nerves are solely composed of sensory fibres; five are strictly motor; and the remaining four are mixed nerves.<\/p>\n

      Learning the cranial nerves is a tradition in anatomy courses, and students have always used mnemonic devices to remember the nerve names. A traditional mnemonic is the rhyming couplet, \u201cOn Old Olympus\u2019 Towering Tops\/A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops,\u201d in which the initial letter of each word corresponds to the initial letter in the name of each nerve. The names of the nerves have changed over the years to reflect current usage and more accurate naming. An exercise to help learn this sort of information is to generate a mnemonic using words that have personal significance. The names of the cranial nerves are listed in Table 13.9.1 along with a brief description of their function, their source (sensory ganglion or motor nucleus), and their target (sensory nucleus or skeletal muscle). They are listed here with a brief explanation of each nerve (Figure 13.9.5).<\/p>\n

      The olfactory nerve<\/strong> and optic nerve<\/strong> are responsible for the sense of smell and vision, respectively. The oculomotor nerve<\/strong> is responsible for eye movements by controlling four of the extraocular muscles<\/strong>. It is also responsible for lifting the upper eyelid when the eyes point up, and for pupillary constriction. The trochlear nerve<\/strong> and the abducens nerve<\/strong> are both responsible for eye movement but do so by controlling different extraocular muscles. The trigeminal nerve<\/strong> is responsible for cutaneous sensations of the face and controlling the muscles of mastication. The facial nerve<\/strong> is responsible for the muscles involved in facial expressions, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva. The vestibulocochlear nerve<\/strong> is responsible for the senses of hearing and balance. The glossopharyngeal nerve<\/strong> is responsible for controlling muscles in the oral cavity and upper throat, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva. The vagus nerve<\/strong> is responsible for contributing to homeostatic control of the organs of the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities. The spinal accessory nerve<\/strong> is responsible for controlling the muscles of the neck, along with cervical spinal nerves. The hypoglossal nerve<\/strong> is responsible for controlling the muscles of the lower throat and tongue.<\/p>\n

      \"Diagram
      Figure 13.9.5. The cranial nerves.<\/strong> The anatomical arrangement of the roots of the cranial nerves observed from an inferior view of the brain.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

      Three of the cranial nerves also contain autonomic fibres, and a fourth is purely a component of the autonomic system. The oculomotor, facial, and glossopharyngeal nerves contain fibres that contact autonomic ganglia. The oculomotor fibres initiate pupillary constriction, whereas the facial and glossopharyngeal fibres both initiate salivation. The vagus nerve primarily targets autonomic ganglia in the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities.<\/p>\n

      Another important aspect of the cranial nerves that lends itself to a mnemonic is the functional role each nerve plays. The nerves fall into one of three basic groups. They are sensory, motor, or both (see Table 13.9.1). The sentence, \u201cSome Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Brains Beauty Matter More,\u201d corresponds to the basic function of each nerve. The first, second, and eighth nerves are purely sensory: the olfactory (CNI), optic (CNII), and vestibulocochlear (CNVIII) nerves. The three eye-movement nerves are all motor: the oculomotor (CNIII), trochlear (CNIV), and abducens (CNVI). The spinal accessory (CNXI) and hypoglossal (CNXII) nerves are also strictly motor. The remainder of the nerves contain both sensory and motor fibres. They are the trigeminal (CNV), facial (CNVII), glossopharyngeal (CNIX), and vagus (CNX) nerves. The nerves that convey both are often related to each other. The trigeminal and facial nerves both concern the face; one concerns the sensations and the other concerns the muscle movements. The facial and glossopharyngeal nerves are both responsible for conveying gustatory, or taste, sensations as well as controlling salivary glands. The vagus nerve is involved in visceral responses to taste, namely the gag reflex. This is not an exhaustive list of what these combination nerves do, but there is a thread of relation between them.<\/p>\n

      Table 13.9.1.<\/strong> Cranial nerves<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
      Mnemonic<\/strong><\/td>\n#<\/strong><\/td>\nName<\/strong><\/td>\nFunction<\/strong><\/p>\n

      (S\/M\/B)<\/strong><\/td>\n

      		Central connection<\/strong><\/p>\n

      (nuclei)<\/strong><\/td>\n

      		Peripheral connection<\/strong><\/p>\n

      (ganglion or muscle)<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      On<\/td>\nI<\/td>\nOlfactory<\/td>\nSmell (S)<\/td>\nOlfactory bulb<\/td>\nOlfactory epithelium<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      Old<\/td>\nII<\/td>\nOptic<\/td>\nVision (S)<\/td>\nHypothalamus\/<\/p>\n

      Thalamus\/<\/p>\n

      midbrain<\/td>\n

      		Retina<\/p>\n

      (retinal ganglion cells)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      Olympus*<\/td>\nIII<\/td>\nOculomotor<\/td>\nEye movements (M)<\/td>\nOculomotor nucleus<\/td>\nExtraocular muscles<\/p>\n

      (other 4), levator palpebrae, superioris, ciliary ganglion<\/p>\n

      (autonomic)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      Towering<\/td>\nIV<\/td>\nTrochlear<\/td>\nEye movements (M)<\/td>\nTrochlear nucleus<\/td>\nSuperior oblique muscle<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      Tops<\/td>\nV<\/td>\nTrigeminal<\/td>\nSensory\/motor – face (B)<\/td>\nTrigeminal nuceli in the midbrain, pons, and medulla<\/td>\nTrigeminal<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      A<\/td>\nVI<\/td>\nAbducens<\/td>\nEye movement (M)<\/td>\nAbducens nucleus<\/td>\nLateral rectus muscle<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      Finn<\/td>\nVII<\/td>\nFacial<\/td>\nMotor \u2013 face, taste (B)<\/td>\nFacial nucleus, solitary nucleus, superior salivatory nucleus<\/td>\nFacial muscles, Geniculate ganglion, Pterygopalatine ganglion<\/p>\n

      (autonomic)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      And<\/td>\nVIIi<\/td>\nAuditory<\/p>\n

      (Vestibulocochlear)<\/td>\n

      		Hearing\/balance (S)<\/td>\nCochlear nucleus, Vestibular nucleus\/cerebellum<\/td>\nSiral ganglion (hearing), Vestibular ganglion (balance)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      German<\/td>\nIX<\/td>\nGlossopharyngeal<\/td>\nMotor \u2013 throat taste (B)<\/td>\nSolitary nucleus, inferior salivatory nucleus, nucleus ambiguus<\/td>\nPharyngeal muscles, Geniculate ganglion, Otic ganglion<\/p>\n

      (autonomic)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

      Viewed<\/td>\nX<\/td>\nVagus<\/td>\nMotor\/sensory – viscera<\/p>\n

      (autonomic) (B)<\/td>\n

      		Medulla<\/td>\nTerminal ganglia serving thoracic and upper abdominal organs (heart and small intestine)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      Some<\/td>\nXI<\/td>\nSpinal accessory<\/td>\nMotor \u2013 head and neck (M)<\/td>\nSpinal accessory nucleus<\/td>\nNeck muscles<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
      Hops<\/td>\nXII<\/td>\nHypoglossal<\/td>\nMotor \u2013 lower throat (M)<\/td>\nHypoglossal nucleus<\/td>\nMuscles of the larynx and lower pharynx<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

      Spinal Nerves<\/h2>\n

      The nerves connected to the spinal cord are the spinal nerves. The arrangement of these nerves is much more regular than that of the cranial nerves. All of the spinal nerves are combined sensory and motor axons that separate into two nerve roots. The sensory axons enter the spinal cord as the dorsal nerve root. The motor fibres, both somatic and autonomic, emerge as the ventral nerve root. The dorsal root ganglion for each nerve is an enlargement of the spinal nerve.<\/p>\n

      There are 31 spinal nerves, named for the level of the spinal cord at which each one emerges. There are eight pairs of cervical nerves designated C1 to C8, twelve thoracic nerves designated T1 to T12, five pairs of lumbar nerves designated L1 to L5, five pairs of sacral nerves designated S1 to S5, and one pair of coccygeal nerves. The nerves are numbered from the superior to inferior positions, and each emerges from the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramen at its level. The first nerve, C1, emerges between the first cervical vertebra and the occipital bone. The second nerve, C2, emerges between the first and second cervical vertebrae. The same occurs for C3 to C7, but C8 emerges between the seventh cervical vertebra and the first thoracic vertebra. For the thoracic and lumbar nerves, each one emerges between the vertebra that has the same designation and the next vertebra in the column. The sacral nerves emerge from the sacral foramina along the length of that unique vertebra.<\/p>\n

      Spinal nerves extend outward from the vertebral column to enervate the periphery. The nerves in the periphery are not straight continuations of the spinal nerves, but the reorganisation of the axons in those nerves to follow different courses. Axons from different spinal nerves will come together into a systemic nerve<\/strong>. This occurs at four places along the length of the vertebral column, each identified as a nerve plexus<\/strong>, whereas the other spinal nerves directly correspond to nerves at their respective levels. In this instance, the word plexus is used to describe networks of nerve fibres with no associated cell bodies.<\/p>\n

      Of the four nerve plexuses, two are found at the cervical level, one at the lumbar level, and one at the sacral level (Figure 13.9.6). The cervical plexus<\/strong> is composed of axons from spinal nerves C1 through C5 and branches into nerves in the posterior neck and head, as well as the phrenic nerve<\/strong>, which connects to the diaphragm at the base of the thoracic cavity. The other plexus from the cervical level is the brachial plexus<\/strong>. Spinal nerves C4 through T1 reorganise through this plexus to give rise to the nerves of the arms, as the name brachial suggests. A large nerve from this plexus is the radial nerve<\/strong> from which the axillary nerve<\/strong> branches to go to the armpit region. The radial nerve continues through the arm and is paralleled by the ulnar nerve<\/strong> and the median nerve<\/strong>. The lumbar plexus<\/strong> arises from all the lumbar spinal nerves and gives rise to nerves enervating the pelvic region and the anterior leg. The femoral nerve<\/strong> is one of the major nerves from this plexus, which gives rise to the saphenous nerve<\/strong> as a branch that extends through the anterior lower leg. The sacral plexus<\/strong> comes from the lower lumbar nerves L4 and L5 and the sacral nerves S1 to S4. The most significant systemic nerve to come from this plexus is the sciatic nerve, which is a combination of the tibial nerve<\/strong> and the fibular nerve<\/strong>. The sciatic nerve<\/strong> extends across the hip joint and is most associated with the condition sciatica<\/strong>, which is the result of compression or irritation of the nerve or any of the spinal nerves giving rise to it.<\/p>\n

      These plexuses are described as arising from spinal nerves and giving rise to certain systemic nerves, but they contain fibres that serve sensory functions or fibres that serve motor functions. This means that some fibres extend from cutaneous or other peripheral sensory surfaces and send action potentials into the CNS. Those are axons of sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia that enter the spinal cord through the dorsal nerve root. Other fibres are the axons of motor neurons of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, which emerge in the ventral nerve root and send action potentials to cause skeletal muscles to contract in their target regions. The radial nerve, for example, contains fibres of cutaneous sensation in the arm, as well as motor fibres that move muscles in the arm.<\/p>\n

      Spinal nerves of the thoracic region, T2 through T11, are not part of the plexuses but emerge and give rise to the intercostal nerves<\/strong> found between the ribs, which articulate with the vertebrae surrounding the spinal nerve.<\/p>\n

      \"Nerve
      Figure 13.9.6. Nerve plexuses of the body.<\/strong> There are four main nerve plexuses in the human body. The cervical plexus supplies nerves to the posterior head and neck, as well as to the diaphragm. The brachial plexus supplies nerves to the arm. The lumbar plexus supplies nerves to the anterior leg. The sacral plexus supplies nerves to the posterior leg.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

      Ageing and the Nervous System<\/h2>\n

      Anosmia is the loss of the sense of smell. It is often the result of the olfactory nerve being severed, usually because of blunt force trauma to the head. The sensory neurons of the olfactory epithelium have a limited lifespan of approximately one to four months, and new ones are made on a regular basis. The new neurons extend their axons into the CNS by growing along the existing fibres of the olfactory nerve. The ability of these neurons to be replaced is lost with age. Age-related anosmia is not the result of impact trauma to the head, but rather a slow loss of the sensory neurons with no new neurons born to replace them.<\/p>\n

      Smell is an important sense, especially for the enjoyment of food. There are only five tastes sensed by the tongue, and two of them are generally thought of as unpleasant tastes (sour and bitter). The rich sensory experience of food is the result of odour molecules associated with the food, both as food is moved into the mouth, and therefore passes under the nose, and when it is chewed and molecules are released to move up the pharynx into the posterior nasal cavity. Anosmia results in a loss of the enjoyment of food.<\/p>\n

      As the replacement of olfactory neurons declines with age, anosmia can set in. Without the sense of smell, many sufferers complain of food tasting bland. Often, the only way to enjoy food is to add seasoning that can be sensed on the tongue, which usually means adding table salt. The problem with this solution, however, is that this increases sodium intake, which can lead to cardiovascular problems through water retention and the associated increase in blood pressure.<\/p>\n

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      Section Review<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n

      \n

      The PNS is composed of the groups of neurons (ganglia) and bundles of axons (nerves) that are outside of the brain and spinal cord. Ganglia are of two types, sensory or autonomic. Sensory ganglia contain unipolar sensory neurons and are found on the dorsal root of all spinal nerves as well as associated with many of the cranial nerves. Autonomic ganglia are in the sympathetic chain, the associated paravertebral or prevertebral ganglia, or in terminal ganglia near or within the organs controlled by the autonomic nervous system.<\/p>\n

      Nerves are classified as cranial nerves or spinal nerves on the basis of their connection to the brain or spinal cord, respectively. The twelve cranial nerves can be strictly sensory in function, strictly motor in function, or a combination of the two functions. Sensory fibres are axons of sensory ganglia that carry sensory information into the brain and target sensory nuclei. Motor fibres are axons of motor neurons in motor nuclei of the brain stem and target skeletal muscles of the head and neck. Spinal nerves are all mixed nerves with both sensory and motor fibres. Spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord and reorganise through plexuses, which then give rise to systemic nerves. Thoracic spinal nerves are not part of any plexus but give rise to the intercostal nerves directly.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

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      Review Questions<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/header>\n

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